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THE
ONE CHURCH
AND THE COMMUNION
OF CHURCHES

The Eastern Catholic Pastoral Association of Southern California
Pre-final Draft for publication – December 23, 2001

CONTENTS
Introduction

Introduction

Part I -- History -- General Overview:
· The Concept and Origin of the Church
· Development of the Apostolic Church
· The Metropolitan Centers
· 30-330 AD -- Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem & Others,
· Early Heresies and Councils
· Divisions which Still Remain Today

· The Roman Tradition
    · History
    · Liturgy & Spirituality
    · The Western Rites and the Latin Church
· The Byzantine (Constantinopolitan) Tradition
    · History
    · Liturgy & Spirituality
    · The Byzantine Churches
· The Alexandrian Tradition
    · History
    · Liturgy & Spirituality
    · The Coptic and Ethiopian Churches
· The Antiochean Tradition
    · History
    · Liturgy & Spirituality
    · The West Syrian Churches
    · The East Syrian Churches
· The Armenian Tradition
    · History
    · Liturgy & Spirituality
    · The Armenian Church

Diagram: Genealogy of Catholic Churches in Communion (held back for publication)
List: Non-Catholic Eastern Churches (held back for publication)
Timeline: Communion of Churches (held back for publication)
Map (held back for publication)
Glossary
Bibliography

This booklet, intended to give a basic synthesis of the development of all the Catholic churches in communion with one another, lists those churches of Apostolic origin which manifest the same oneness characteristic of the Apostolic Church by virtue of their common bond with the Successor of Peter. It is hoped that through this outline the reader will be able to view the splendor of the One Church shining forth through its multifaceted expressions within the communion of churches.

The church has many names: The Bride of Christ, the Kingdom of God, the Mystical Body of Christ, etc. All Christians have an experience of what a church is and many have studied its great effect on human history for almost 2000 years. Yet, when we consider the grand history of creation from beginning to end, there is a deeper historical meaning to the concept of "church." The Fathers of the Church taught that it is very ancient; the church is the first of all things created, and the reason for which God created the universe! The Church exists wherever Truth exists. It is that part of creation which will endure to the end and which will become glorified.

In the book of Genesis, beginning with Adam and Eve before the fall, we see the image of a harmonious church-family under God, namely, a "paradise." For a short time Adam and Eve lived in obedience to the only law commanded them. (Gen. 2:17) They were familiar with hearing God move about in the Garden (Gen 3:8.) Luke refers to Adam as the “son of God.” (Luke 3:38) The Bible refers to this kind of family-bond/contract as a “covenant.” When Adam and Eve sinned, they broke the unique covenant God made with them; it seemed then that God's plans for his church-family to include the human race would be destroyed. But God cannot be defeated by sin. Although our first parents and their children after them, fell into sin, God had a plan to bring all peoples and nations back to him.

The story of Noah and his faithful family confirms for us God’s desire to maintain a covenant with the human race and to preserve the world from destruction. And although God formed a covenant with them, some of them broke it. God later formed a covenant with Abraham, renewing it with Isaac and Jacob; this covenant made them into a family of God. Through them the family of God became a tribe which became 12 tribes with Jacob's (Israel's) 12 sons, many of whom were unfaithful. Nevertheless, under Moses, the covenant agreement of the Law formed at Sinai expanded the family of God into a nation, and it was under King David that the covenant people became a Kingdom.

Somehow each successive covenant expanded to include more and more people as God's plan to redeem all of mankind matured. Yet these covenants were often broken because they depended on weak human beings. Finally, through the long awaited Messiah (Christos in Greek), a completely new covenant was established; it was the fulfillment of past covenants and the last. The new covenant formed the Church gathered from among the nations -- the church catholic!

The word "catholic" was used since at least the year 110 AD to designate that church which is spread out all over the world and is for all people versus the “church” of the one nation (Israel) or a purely national organization. The word catholic is from the Greek catholikos, meaning universal. This new covenant cannot be undone because it is based in Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who lives forever. All who wish to enter into this new covenant, which forms the family of God, must be united to Jesus Christ. The collective body in union with Christ is called the Church which also includes the angels and the faithful departed who have gone before us. The mission of the Church is to baptize all nations into Christ. Jesus commanded his disciples, ". . . go, therefore, make disciples of all the nations. Baptize them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Teach them to carry out everything I have commanded you. And know that I am with you always, until the end of the world. " (Matthew 28:20)

After Pentecost, the Apostles received great power [Acts 2], impelling them to evangelize not only the tribes of Israel but all peoples. Leaving Jerusalem, many went out into various regions of the world. Since they were Hebrews, the liturgical form they used followed the custom of the Temple and the synagogues: they gathered, sang psalms, said prayers, had Scripture readings and a homily. They also carried out the commandment Christ gave them at the last supper, forming a uniquely Christian way of worship through the breaking of the bread, namely, the Eucharist. The celebration of the Eucharist was for them, and would be for all the apostolic churches, the very heart of Christian life and worship.

Although the Apostles, along with other evangelists, and their successors went to many places, the areas which accepted Christianity most readily were the cities. The metropolitan areas especially gained many Christians and became strong centers of Christianity and influenced the surrounding areas. The church of the apostles spread and developed unique flavors characteristic of the metropolitan areas. In this fashion various liturgical traditions sometimes, referred to as "rites," developed according to language, culture, and outlook of the people of the different areas of the world. Although all shared the common faith of the Apostles, each metropolitan church developed its own way of expressing that faith in worship and explaining it in theological writings. Cities and towns surrounding these metropolises were heavily influenced by them and, in fact, had to receive approval from them for the ordination of their bishops. The metropolises were magnets strongly influencing everything around them including church practice and civil politics. The bishop of these centers was called a "patriarch" (a venerable way of saying "father") or "pope" (a more intimate way of saying "father").

In the first two centuries the major metropolitan centers were Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. Jerusalem too began as an influential Christian center, but in 70 AD the city was completely demolished along with the Temple by the Romans during the 1st Jewish War. After it was rebuilt, it was again completely destroyed in 135 AD during the 2nd Jewish War. It never recovered as a strong Christian center. Unfortunately, Jerusalem, the first church, was unable to preserve its own distinctive tradition. Today, the small Christian presence in that city is made up of all the main traditions of the church. To sum up, for about the first 250 years there were three main centers: Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, then later, a fourth, Constantinople, established as the new capital.

The growth of early Christianity came at the great price of thousands of Martyrs. Sever persecution, torture and executions of Christians began to subside after the edict of toleration which Emperor Constantine granted Christians at Milan in 313 AD. It was after this period when Bishops began to feel freer and had more ability to work to codify the Liturgy in order to preserve the essence of Christian worship from heresy. But by now several patriarchates had emerged along with various Liturgical customs, which serve to enrich the Tradition of the Church.

30-330 AD -- The 5 patriarchates or Pentarchy: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, & Others,

It was in Antioch that the word "Christian" was first used (Acts 11:26) and where both Peter and Paul preached; the former generally recognized to be the first Bishop of Antioch. And, it was St. Ignatius (martyred in 110 AD), Bishop of Antioch and disciple of the Apostle John, whose use of the word "catholic" first appears in extant manuscripts. Antioch was heavily Hellenized and its people spoke Greek, but it was also a cross-roads for the Semitic and Greek cultures. Some, especially with ties to the countryside, also spoke Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic, which was the language of Jesus; these people had more of a cultural affinity with Edessa (in present day Syria) which became an influential Christian center almost immediately from the second century on. From Antioch and Edessa the gospel reached Persia (present day Iran and parts of Iraq) whose most important area there was the city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. According to tradition this area along with India was evangelized by St. Thomas the Apostle. Later on, Christianity reached China through the Aramaic-speaking people. There it began to thrive for several hundred years. But due to persecution and the fact that it could not take root within the culture it eventually died out after the tenth century, long before Marco Polo set foot there. Similarly, Christianity reached the Arabian peninsula and was only beginning to take root among some tribes just before the Islamic conquests.

Alexandria, according to tradition, was evangelized by a disciple of St. Peter, St. Mark the Evangelist, author of the gospel which bears his name. It quickly became a strong Christian center and took the faith into all of Egypt and Ethiopia, an area already acquainted with Judaism and which had received the gospel since the time Philip spoke with the Ethiopian eunuch, (a court official of the queen, see Acts 8:26-39). From there the Gospel later spread further south, but Christianity in this area all but disappeared during the middle ages because of Islamic persecutions.

Rome was the final evangelical mission of Peter. It is the tradition of the church that Peter became the first bishop there and that both he and Paul were martyred in that city. The Bishops of Rome henceforth had the distinguished honor of being the successors of Peter, the head of the apostles (Mt. 16:16-19, Acts 15:7), and were therefore recognized as having primacy. That, and the fact that Rome was the center of the Roman Empire caused the church there to have a prestigious place among all other churches.

Other areas: From the first century Christianity reached other areas, including Asia Minor where St. Paul preached and sent several epistles which have become part of Scripture. It is the area of the "seven churches" mentioned in the Book of Revelation. Tradition has it that the apostle Bartholomew evangelized the area of Armenia which became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as the official state religion in 303 AD.

The small port city of Byzantium already had a minor bishopric at the time of its re-founding by the Emperor Constantine in 330 AD, and became the new capital of the Empire because Rome itself was becoming increasingly vulnerable. He named this new fortress-capital "Constantinople" and hailed it as the "New Rome." The church of Constantinople instantly attained patriarchal status and gained such honors in rank second only to Rome. Its influence became great, spreading throughout much of the Greek-speaking eastern empire, especially into new evangelical frontiers both north and east. The Emperors also became more and more involved as patrons of the church and attempted to settle disputes by taking sides on theological matters and by naming who would be patriarch in Constantinople. Henceforth, political friction between four metropolitan areas, Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch would increasingly trouble the church. At times political disputes even erupted into the theological sphere causing myopia and needless misunderstandings that also led to bitter divisions.

Heresies in the church are as old as the time of the Apostles. St. Paul had to contend with the Judaizers. These were a group of fundamentalist Jews who, having become Christian, insisted that all Christians must hold onto the Law given to Moses (see Galatians). The Apostles and other bishops put an end to the controversy by the decision they reached at the Council held at Jerusalem (Acts 15).

The early church also had to deal with the Gnostics who denied that Jesus had a human body. They grew in number and threatened the orthodoxy (true faith) of the church. John the Apostle, contending with them, wrote, "Every spirit that acknowledges Jesus Christ come in the flesh belongs to God, while every spirit that fails to acknowledge him does not belong to God. Such is the spirit of the antichrist…." (1 John 4:3) This group grew larger after the death of the apostles and took on various forms. The Gnostic sects that developed were especially dangerous because they denied the humanity of Jesus, and the goodness of the material creation, and because they composed their own scriptures and liturgies. Every variety of belief sprouted to “suit every ear.” Most of these sects died out after a few hundred years.

The greatest heresy, the Arian Heresy, took its name from Arius (a priest in Egypt) who said that the Son of God was created as the first of all creatures and was not eternally begotten. This teaching caused great uproar, especially since Arius had some bishops as sympathizers, and it caused great divisions among Christians all over the world. As a result, a great council was held at Nicea in 325 AD. It was an impressive gathering of all the bishops of the world (or their representatives.) Like the council of Jerusalem in Acts 15, this council was held with the belief that the Holy Spirit would guide them to all truth as Jesus said (John 16:13). The council of Nicea proclaimed the ancient faith of the Apostles, which is still proclaimed at the Liturgy in the Creed, "I [We] believe in One God. . . and in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord, eternally begotten, not made, one in being with the Father, (God from God,) Light from Light, True God from True God. . . . " Those who did not accept the decrees of the council were excommunicated, thus becoming heretics. The Arians spread their heresy far and wide, and it lasted hundreds of years until it finally died out in the middle ages.

Because of various political tensions and theological misunderstandings, divisions which began in the fifth century are still with us today.

When Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, said in a homily on Christmas day that we ought not call Mary the Mother of God, as was customary, an uproar ensued. This led to a General, Church-wide council at Ephesus, a traditional site of the Dormition of Our Lady. The controversy was serious because failing to call Mary “God-bearer” implied a dichotomy in the identity of Jesus. The Council proclaimed that Mary is the Theotokos (Bearer of God) thereby affirming the ancient belief in Christ as a single person. Although Nestorius recanted, a segment of the East Syrian Churches still did not agree with the Council and were subsequently excommunicated. These took refuge in the Persian Empire, the long-time arch-enemy of the Roman Empire. From there the Nestorian form of Christianity spread further east. Today, however, it is generally agreed that these sad divisions were caused more as a result of political tensions and a lack of clear communication across two distinct world views than the desire of the East Syrian Churches to distance themselves from orthodox faith.

In 451 AD the Council of Chalcedon was held to resolve another great controversy which began in Egypt over the identity of Christ. Eutiches, an Egyptian monk, taught that Christ had one “nature.” Today we understand that the term “Nature" answers the question "What is it?" While the term "person" answers the question "Who is he?" (For example - Who is he? …Jesus. What is he? …human and Divine.) However, the terms "nature" and "person" were not at all clear at that time. We are only able to agree upon the meaning of these words today since the Christological reflections that developed as a result of the council assigned their definition. The council taught that Christ is one divine person possessing two natures: divine and human united together but distinct.

Three sections of the Church were separated when they did not accept the council of Chalcedon; they were referred to as Monophysite (One nature). These include the majority of the Egyptian (Coptic) Church, the majority of the Armenian church, and parts of the Antiochean Syrian church. These followed the Patriarch (Pope) of Alexandria. Today, however, it is largely agreed that the division that now exists is a matter of semantics and does not touch on the essence of the faith. These churches agree that Christ is both Divine and human, although they use the term "special nature" to express the union of the two. Growing political friction at the time, especially between Constantinople and Alexandria, fueled the controversy.

Unfortunately, Christians fought with great resentment over this issue and even resorted to military tactics against each other. This led to the lightning sweep of Islam in the 7th century throughout the divided Christian territories. Eager for liberation from Constantinople, Alexandria, the second most powerful military fortress in the world, opened its gates without resistance. With the help of Constantinople, Alexandria could not have been conquered. Thus, Islamic dominance caused the Christian controversies to "freeze in place," and the great influence of the Patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch on the rest of the Church outside their realm waned.

Lastly, the Great Schism between East and West took place in 1054; the great majority of the Eastern churches became separated from the West. The rivalry was between the Church of Rome (which holds the primacy) and the Church of Constantinople, the "New Rome." Since the fifth century the Western Empire was in anarchy and under constant invasions from various northern tribes. Rome had declined in prestige and political influence. But Constantinople held out, even against the greater blunts of the Islamic invasions, while also holding out against the attacks of the northern tribes. Because of the complex political climate, tensions built to a breaking point between Rome and Constantinople until each excommunicated the other in 1054. At that time the controversies remained hierarchical: the common peoples did not really consider any serious antagonism until the sacking of Constantinople by the Latin crusade in 1204. Henceforth, the divisions that may have been able to be healed with a little resolve became very bitter and still remain with us today.

Complicated are the historical circumstances which led each particular church to either continue communion with Rome, or to separate, only to later reunite, at least in part. These historical circumstances involve centuries of shifting relationships of churches with one another, intricately inter-woven and influenced by linguistic, political, economic, and cultural variations. Below, the history of each of the 23 churches in communion with the Bishop of Rome will be dealt with briefly. They are categorized into 5 main Traditions. A Tradition is a particular religious family that has its own liturgy, theology, spirituality and laws. The 5 traditions are: The Roman, the Byzantine, the Alexandrian, the Antiochene, and the Armenian.

The Roman Tradition is rich in variety. The prestigious influence of the city of Rome, the influence of the popes, a common Latin scholastic language and the cohesion of the Western Empire’s infrastructure, were some of the factors that contributed to a tradition spanning a large geographic area and encompassing a multitude of cultures. At the time of the Apostles, Greek was the language of the learned. Eventually Latin prevailed throughout the West, even as Rome declined. As the Northern tribes conquered the western lands, people who wished to be educated had to learn Latin. Several liturgical rites developed. In the Roman Tradition there is only one “Latin” or “Roman” church. This is largely due to the centralizing influence of the Pope of Rome within his Patriarchal territory in the West and also due to the fact that unity eventually prevailed over all the early heresies and divisions until the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

Liturgy & Spirituality: Latin Liturgical tradition is ancient and has elements from both the Greek and Syriac traditions. It’s essential form is influenced by monasticism from the 5th century to the middle ages. Until the liturgical reform of the late 20th century Latin chants were commonly used. Today the Latin Liturgical tradition is characteristically diverse. Its basic form is highly adaptable to the multitude of cultures and languages of each local diocese. The Liturgy can be solemn or simple, depending on local custom.

Today, the spirituality of the Latin Church is best characterized by its openness and inclusivity to a diversity of possible approaches to God within the Christian tradition.

What follows is a list of some of the Liturgical rites belonging to the Roman Tradition followed by a brief description of the Latin Church:

Ambrosian: Celebrated (at times) in the Archdiocese of Milan and surrounding areas. A few years ago it was restored to its original form.

Mozarabic: Celebrated through the eleventh century in the Iberian Peninsula of Spain. This Liturgical rite has Moorish influence. It was suppressed and became nearly extinct, confined to occasional celebrations in the Cathedral of Toledo and nine churches. In 1993 its use was restored to all regions of Spain and wherever its celebration is desired. Many Hispanic customs for weddings, baptisms, and holy week are derived from this rite and its derivative, the Braga Rite of Portugal.

Gallican (Rite of Lyon): This rite developed as one of those Gallican group of rites which were practiced from about the 5th century in Gaul. It has strong Eastern influence. Ireland too is known to have had a form of this Gallican Liturgy mixed with Celtic customs. Today this rite is still in use in the Archdiocese of Lyon, France.

Latin Church - The Bishop of Rome is the successor of St. Peter, and as such, is not only the Patriarch of the Latin Church, but is also the Pope of the entire Church. Today, the Latin Church is the largest by far of all other churches combined. It has a long history which spans the greater part of the globe. Until the second Vatican Council the liturgical language was Latin. When the Northern tribes became victorious over the Western Roman Empire beginning in the 5th century they settled in various areas over the course of several hundred years. They eventually mixed with the indigenous local peoples and were converted to Christianity. These evolved into the modern nations of Europe. It should also be noted that when the Americas were discovered the indigenous peoples eventually converted and today comprise a large part of the Latin Church. Worthy of mention in our discussion are the series of tragic divisions of the 16th century, primarily the Lutheran, Calvinist (reform,) and Anglican separations. Since then, thousands of denominations have developed. The proliferation of Protestant non-apostolic churches that we see today are a natural consequence of the original breaks of the 16th century. They are reminders of yet unhealed wounds in Western Christianity.

The word “Byzantine” comes from the name of the ancient port city, “Byzantium,” later named “Constantinople.” Today it is known as “Istanbul.” (from the Greek expression "Eis tin Bolin" which means "towards the city.”) Since the time of Alexander the Great (d. 333 BC) Greek had become as universal as English is today. Constantinople became the vanguard of the ancient Roman Empire and of Eastern Christianity until around the time of the birth of Christopher Columbus!

Liturgy & Spirituality: The Liturgy of the Byzantine tradition owes much to the splendor of the royal court of the Byzantine Empire with its elaborate ritual, processions, chant, icons, and mosaics. An icon screen dividing the holy place from the nave creates a sense of mystery. At communion time, the body and blood of Christ are mixed in a chalice and given to the faithful with a spoon. (But the Melkites give communion by intinction.)

Byzantine spirituality emphasizes the unknowable mystery and majesty of God. Yet God does not remain distant; on the contrary, we are each called to share in the divine nature through Christ. God remains unknowable in his essence while communicating his love. We participate in his very life by communing with him through his body, the church.

All of the fourteen Churches listed below follow the Byzantine Liturgical Rite but have their own variations and history. (Some population estimates may be inaccurate for Churches which were affected during Communism).

Albanian Church - Christianity came to Albania before the 4th century. Since then most Albanians have become Moslem. After the East-West schism of 1054 a small group became Catholic in the 16th century, but soon after disappeared. In 1920 another small group became Catholic. In 1967 the government of Albania outlawed all religion. Today Albanian Byzantine Catholics have become dispersed and numerically are only a few hundred.

Bulgarian Church - The Bulgarian Catholic Church had its beginnings in 1861. Today a small community remains of approximately 25,000 mostly in Bulgaria whose bishop resides in Sophia.

Byelorussian Church - The Byelorussian Catholic Church had its beginnings at the Union of Brest in 1596. Today they number less than 1% (about 120,000) of the Orthodox population there.

Croatian Church - Although most Croatians belong to the Latin Church, some use the Byzantine Liturgy (these were Orthodox who, by 1613, entered into communion with Rome). In 1777 a permanent diocese was established in Kirzevcy. Today they number almost 50,000. Closely associated with the Croatian Church are also about 10,000 Macedonian faithful who practice the Macedonian Rite. They are under the jurisdiction of the Latin bishop of Skopje.

Greek Church - Today's Greek Orthodox Church is independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. In the second half of the 19th century a small group of Greek Orthodox from Constantinople (Istanbul) became Catholic. Today they number a couple of thousand who live in Greece.

Hungarian Church - The Hungarian (Magyars) received their faith from Byzantium but sought the jurisdiction of the Latin Church until 1696. The influx of refugees from Byelorussia and Serbia increased in number and melded with the local population. In 1912 a diocese was created for them. Today they number about 345,000.

Italo-Albanian Church - Since Sicily and southern Italy were heavily Greek in culture at the time of the early church, many of the people of those regions adopted the Byzantine Liturgy. But as the centuries passed, the region came more and more under the control of the Patriarch of the West, who is the Pope of Rome. The Byzantine influence on the region nearly disappeared. However, in 1453, the fall of Constantinople brought a new wave of immigrants from Albania, most of whom were Byzantine Christians. Thus the faithful now number about 61,000. There is no Orthodox counterpart.

Melkite-Greek Church - Also referred to as "Roum Catoleek". It is erroneous to translate this literally as "Roman Catholic" since "Roum" really refers to New Rome (Constantinople, the new capital of the Roman Empire) previously known as Byzantium. The Melkite Church is an Antiochean Church in the Middle East which remained in communion with the Emperor of Constantinople and the church there, even after the Arab invasions. "Melkite" comes from the Syriac Malko which means King, in reference to the Emperors who supported the Council of Chalcedon. The early Melkite tradition included Syriac speaking Christians and Syriac Liturgical usage. At the time of the Islamic invasion Byzantine Liturgical influence gradually increased until the Melkites finally adopted Byzantine Liturgical usage by the thirteenth century, along with Greek and later Arabic vernacular.

After the schism between Rome and Constantinople in 1054, the Patriarch of Antioch did not immediately break off relations with Rome. There are many examples of sacramental sharing in the centuries that followed. A distinct Catholic/Orthodox hierarchy emerged in 1724 when a patriarch having clear Catholic sympathies was elected. Those opposed to Catholic communion elected their own candidate.

Today the Melkite Patriarchal seat is in Damascus with residences in Raboueh (Lebanon) and Cairo. The Patriarch has the title of "Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem." (“East” being the boundaries of ancient Anatolia.) The faithful are mostly Arabic speaking from all the countries of the Middle East. Melkites living outside of their native lands today make up the greater portion. There are dioceses and churches in North and South America, Australia, and various parts of the world. There are over one million Melkite Catholics worldwide. The Antiochene Orthodox Church is their counterpart and has a more numerous population.

Romanian Church - Christianity first came to Romania in the 3rd century in the form of the Western Liturgical tradition. The area however gradually adopted the Byzantine usage, although culturally and linguistically it remains Western. After the Great Schism between East and West, Romanian Christians became Orthodox. In the beginning of the 18th century some reunited with Rome. After 1948 the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church was suppressed and made illegal by the totalitarian communist government, and all the Byzantine Catholic Bishops, many priests, monks, nuns and faithful died in prison and in the “gulags” (forced labor camps.) Today the Byzantine Romanians are undergoing a revival and number almost 20 million; 8.6% of these are Romanian Catholic.

Russian Church - One of the last of the Byzantine Catholic Churches to be formed is the Russian Greek Catholic Church. In the nineteenth century some prominent figures and intellectuals in Russia became Catholic. However, it was illegal to be a Russian Catholic until an edict of tolerance was issued in 1905. Small Catholic groups then began to form in St. Petersburg and Moscow as well as in Kursk and Harkhov. They called themselves the "Catholic Old Believers." In 1917, with the Bolshevik takeover, the Catholic Exarch who had been appointed that same year was imprisoned and his flock subsequently scattered. Today there are small communities in Paris, Brussels, the Hague, Rome, Melbourne, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aries, El Segundo, New York, and San Francisco, with a combined population of about 5,000, with possibly more in Russia.

Ruthenian Church - The Ruthenians are of the Carpatho-Ukraine region. They are related to the Ukrainians and speak mostly a different dialect of the same language but consider themselves ethnically Ukrainian, Slovak, and Rusin. Some Ruthenians came into formal communion with Rome in the 17th century. Today the Ruthenian Catholic Church numbers 670,000 including over 200,000 in the U.S.

Slovakian Church - The Slovaks have been closely linked to the Ruthenians and, in fact, indistinguishable until national awareness arose in mid 19th century. Catholic Slovaks were outlawed by the Communists until 1968. Today there are about 400,000 Slovak Catholics in Slovakia and an additional 30,000 in Canada. In the US they identify themselves with the Ruthenians.

Ukrainian Church - Although Christianity among the Ukrainian people is ancient, the Rus-Ukraine Nation did not convert in mass until 988 following the conversion of Prince Volodymyr. The divisions of 1054 would later affect this area of the world. The Union of Brest in 1596 began reestablishment of communion with the Orthodox of Ukraine. By the 18th century 2/3 of the area of Western Ukraine was Catholic. In the 19th century the Russian Czar officially suppressed Catholic Churches, but many communities still flourished in the area of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Poland. Under Communism, the Ukrainian Catholic Church was oppressed and forced to join the Russian Orthodox. Most bishops and many priests died in prison while others were exiled. But the events of 1989 have brought the Ukrainian Catholic Church out from its underground existence. Numbering over 7 million faithful, the Ukrainian Catholic Church constitutes the largest Catholic Church in the former Soviet Union and the Largest Eastern Catholic Church in the world.

Saint Mark the Evangelist is credited with founding the church in Alexandria. Eventually, all of Egypt, present day Sudan, and much of Ethiopia became Christian until the seventh century when Islam dominated North Africa. But it was not until the middle ages that Christians ceased to be in the majority. During the first few hundred years of Christianity Alexandria was very active theologically having only the school of Antioch as a competitor. The Alexandrian Tradition also gave the Church one of its greatest treasures, Monasticism. After the example of Saint Anthony the Great people flocked to the desert by the thousands to experience and learn this way of life.

But there were also tensions. Alexandria provided grain for Constantinople, which had grown in dominance over Alexandria. Both cities had cultural and language differences as well as arguments over trade. Egypt, after all, was once an empire itself. Now it was subservient to Constantinople. The Hellenization of the Coptic Liturgy was resisted for the most part, and the Coptic language (a mixture of the old Egyptian and Greek) and way of worship prevailed. This rivalry fueled the religious controversies which ended in division after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 (see pg…) The greater part of the Alexandrian Patriarchate divided from the rest of the church. Those who accepted the Council faded away during the long period of Islamic domination. In 1442 at the council of Florence an agreement of unity was reached but did not materialize in practice.

Like the Roman Tradition, the Alexandrian Tradition had only one Church until the 20th century when the southern part of the Coptic Church attained independent status and became known as the Ethiopian Church.

Liturgy & Spirituality: The Liturgy of the Alexandrian tradition closely resembles the Byzantine Liturgy with its processions and chanting but has much less speculative poetry, symbolic splendor, and sumptuous ceremonial. It is highly penitential, contemplative, long, and solemn. The clergy wear slippers in the holy place. The faithful remove their shoes before going up to communion. Men and women go separate into side rooms that are open to the sanctuary to receive communion. Leavened bread is used. The Liturgical language is Coptic, but the vernacular is also used.

In the early church Alexandria emerged as a center of spirituality with an emphasis on faith and constant prayer. Through the example of Anthony of the desert people from all over the world flocked to the desert by the thousands. Through the influence of monasticism the Alexandrian spirituality is highly penitential. There are strict fasts throughout most of the year. Charity, meekness, constant prayer, and a simple life are encouraged. There is a strong emphasis on the divinity of Christ and the otherness of God.

Coptic Church- The Moslem Arab invaders referred to the indigenous peoples of Egypt as Gypt (Copt) from the Greek word Egyptos meaning Egyptian. Copts take pride in the ancient tradition that Mark the Evangelist founded the See (seat) of Alexandria, and take even more pride in that Egypt is part of the Holy Land since it was the country of refuge for the Holy Family. Missionary activity from the Coptic Church spread in all directions and was particularly successful southward, reaching deep into Nubia where Christianity eventually became extinct because of Islamic persecution and conquest.

Around the middle part of the 18th century, Franciscan and Jesuit influences resulted in a small number of Coptic Orthodox becoming Catholic. In the 19th century a Coptic Catholic Patriarchate was established. Today the Coptic Catholic population consists of about 2.5% of the overall Coptic population of over 8-10 million and has churches in Canada, USA, Australia, and various other parts of the world.

Ethiopian (Geez) Church - Although there were Christians there from Apostolic times, large scale conversions, including that of the King, did not take place until the 4th century when the Coptic St. Frumentius evangelized the area. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church became an integral part of Ethiopian life, so much so that it became the state religion right up to the time of the Marxist revolution in 1974. This put an end to what was claimed to be the most ancient line of Monarchical succession going back to king Solomon! The Ethiopian Church had its beginnings among the Coptic Orthodox and it received independent status from Alexandria in 1950, thus becoming an autonomous church. At the Council of Florence communion was achieved with the Ethiopian Church but it could not take hold because of the forced introduction of Latin Liturgical practices. This caused resentment and finally reversion to a state of division. In the 19th century missionary activity resumed, and in 1960 a Catholic Metropolitan See was established. Today the Ethiopian Catholic Church comprises less than 1% of the overall Ethiopian Orthodox population of over 12 million.

When St. Peter and other Apostles founded the early church community in Antioch the city was a major metropolis. It quickly became the center of Christian activity up to hundreds of miles away. However, The Patriarchate of Antioch suffered from two main divisions. The first occurred in 431. During that year bishops from all over the world gathered in Ephesus to settle a dispute regarding the personhood of Christ; they affirmed that Mary can be called “Mother of God.” This title was not accepted by some bishops and for complex reasons a schism occurred which led to the formation of a separate Chaldean-Assyrian Church. The second schism occurred in 451 following the Council of Chalcedon which stated that Christ had two natures, Divine and human. Also for complex reasons, a portion of the Syriac Church (along with a portion of the Alexandrian and Armenian Church) rejected the Council. They were called “Monophysites” (adherers of “one-nature”.) since they believed that Christ had only one Divine-human nature. The Syriac-speaking “Monophysites” were later also called “Jacobites.” They eventually elected their own Patriarch of Antioch and claimed rightful Apostolic succession. Today this Church is called “Syrian Orthodox,” whereas the portion of this Church that has come into communion with Rome is called “Syrian Catholic.”

The rest of the Christians in the Antiochene Patriarchate supported Chalcedon. They remained in catholic communion largely due to the influence of a group of monasteries, among the largest and most influential was called the Monastery of Saint Maron.

During the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, when the Emperor of Constantinople was in the habit of appointing the Patriarch of Antioch (who for reasons of safety used to reside in Constantinople,) there occurred a long period of vacancy in the See when no Patriarch was appointed. As a result, a portion of the Catholic bishops of the Near East, under the influence of the Monastery of Saint Maron, decided to elect their own Patriarch as rightful successor. This was John Maron. His election, and that of his successors, was not recognized by the remaining bishops. They instead awaited an appointment from the civil authority, the Emperor. When finally one was appointed, he continued to reside in Constantinople as did his successors. For this reason and because of political, economic, geographic, and other factors, the Chalcedonians who followed the Emperor-appointed Patriarch began to employ elements of the Byzantine Liturgical tradition increasingly from the 7th century until the 13th century when the Byzantine Liturgy was used in its entirety. Because of their Byzantine usage they are today referred to as Greek-Melkite (note: see pg.—under Byzantine) or “Roum” Catholic and “Roum” Orthodox. (“Roum” is in reference to the Byzantine portion of the “Roman” Empire.) The remaining Chalcedonians retained the Syriac-based Antiochene Liturgical Tradition (along with some Edessan influence.) They came to be called “Maronite” because of the influence of the Monastery of Saint Maron in preserving allegiance to the 5th century Council and because of the monastery’s influence in the election of John Maron in the 7th century.

Liturgy & Spirituality: The Antiochean tradition is two-fold, Greek and Syriac. The Greek tradition is described under “Byzantine.”

The Syriac tradition is Semitic. Its liturgy is among the most ancient, having Jewish roots. It is highly influenced by Monasticism in its simplicity. Some churches have a veil separating the inner sanctuary as in the ancient temple. This veil opens during the celebration of the Eucharist. Although various icons are used these are not elaborated but simple. There are processions, chants, and songs. Eucharist is given by intinction. The prayers are poetic and scriptural. They make use of much imagery showing the fulfillment of the Old Testament in Christ.

Syriac spirituality emphasizes paradox in order to depict the essence of God. Though unknowable he has made himself known to the simple and pure of heart. Thus, Mary held in her arms the one who holds the whole universe. In the early church, Antioch competed with Alexandria as a spiritual center. But its emphasis was on the humanity of Christ. God became “one of us” that we may be as he is.

Maronite Church – The only Catholic body in the Near East that retained its Syriac characteristics after the schisms in the Patriarchate of Antioch. It came to be called “Maronite” because it aligned itself closely with the monastery of Saint Maron and its many sister monasteries. The existence of this monastery, among the largest in the Near East (purportedly having 800 rooms for monks,) was a critical factor in preserving the ancient Apostolic Syriac Tradition within the Catholic Communion. It was named after a priest-hermit called “Maron” who lived in the late 4th and early 5th century. He lived in the mountains of present-day Syria in the region of Apamea along the Orontes River. When he died, his disciples later built the monastery in his memory. The monks of this monastery and its numerous sister monasteries were zealous evangelizers. Until the early Middle Ages, the Maronites were numerous throughout the Near East where monastic evangelization became very successful, surpassing even the eastern boundaries of the Euphrates, the northern and western boundaries of Antioch and Cyprus, and the southern boundaries of Lebanon and well beyond. This mountainous region became a fertile home for the Gospel and a refuge for Maronites during the terrible persecutions, especially from the 7th century on. At the time when St. John Maron, a Maronite bishop, was elected as Patriarch, he resided in the area of present-day Lebanon. Henceforth, the Maronites would shape the culture and history of Lebanon and its surrounding areas.

Outside of Lebanon there are today 3 eparchies in Syria, an eparchy each in Cyprus, Egypt, Europe, the Holy Land, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Canada, and two in the USA. The Maronite Church, never broke communion from Rome and has no Orthodox counterpart. Population: over 3 million.

Syrian Church - The Semitic minded Edessa and Aleppo and the surrounding areas in Syria staunchly resisted Hellenization and the influence of Constantinople. Many of these rejected the Council of Chalcedon (451). Under the efforts of Jacob Baradai, the non-Chalcedonian movement gained strength and hence this Church was referred to as Jacobite (a term rejected by the Syrian Church). Negotiations for the reestablishment of communion began in the 12th century, and unity documents were signed at the Council of Florence in 1442, but nothing materialized. In the 17th century Latin Catholic missionary activity and Maronite influence succeeded in persuading many Syrian Christians to enter into communion with Rome. Ever since, a Catholic Patriarch has been elected along side the non-Chalcedonian Patriarch of the Syrian Orthodox Church. The Syrian Church suffered terribly during the chaos of World War I under the Turks. Today there are over 100,000 Syrian Catholics mostly found in Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq, but also in the Americas and Australia.

Malankar Church - See "The Christians of St. Thomas" under "The East Syrian Tradition. "

While the West Syrian Tradition was influenced by the later Byzantine tradition, the east Syrian Tradition was hardly touched due to the Persian Empire’s hostility with its ancient arch-rivals in the West. The Christians who comprise the “East Syrian Tradition” lived in ancient Persia but also in the “in-between” lands of present-day Iraq that was always a battle ground that vacillated between the two great empires. Some describe the East Syrian Tradition separate from the Antiochene Tradition. Here we have placed it as a subcategory because of its affinity with the West Syrian Tradition.

Chaldean Church - Not only did the area of ancient Babylon & Assyria resist the influence of Constantinople, but it also rejected the Hellenizing influence of Antioch from the beginning. This East Syrian Church and its liturgy developed from Palestinian Christianity through Antioch and Edessa with minimal Greek influence. The Mesopotamian region was evangelized in the second half of the 1st century by Mar (saint) Addai and Mar Mari. In the 4th century Seleucia-Ctesophone became the ecclesiastical center and self-governance was proclaimed in 424. The Chaldeans and Assyrians adopted Nestorianism in 486 soon after the Council of Ephesus in 431. This division reflected a political and theological tension between two distinct world-views. The Chaldeans and Assyrians continued their missionary activity in Persia, India, and China, particularly from the 8th to the 13th century, but their activities were curtailed in the 14th century following the conversion of the Mongolian invaders to Islam. Communion with the Church of Rome began in the 16th century and has continued with more and more success. The Moslem Turks inflicted cruel persecutions upon the faithful during World War I and greatly reduced their number. Today the Chaldean Catholic Church has over one million members, about 75% of the total Assyrian Christian population. They exist in Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey, Lebanon, Egypt, Europe, USA, Australia, Indonesia, and other areas.

Malabar Church - Malabar is a region in Southwest India in Kerala. According to local tradition, St. Thomas the Apostle evangelized the area and was martyred there. Because of this Christians in this area are called St. Thomas Christians. This Church was under the Assyrian Patriarch and was involved in the schism which occurred shortly after the Council of Ephesus in 431. In 1498 Portuguese missionaries made contact and were received as brothers of the same faith, thus communion with Rome ensued. However, forced efforts of Latinization caused many of the St. Thomas Christians to turn away. One branch broke off and joined the Syrian Orthodox Church which holds to the Council of Ephesus. They became known as Malankara.

Like the Syrian Church, the Malankar Church employed the Antiochene Liturgical Rite using the West Syriac script. In 1926 reestablishment of communion took place involving a bishop and several priests. Today this Malankar Catholic body constitutes about 16% of the overall Malankar Christian population of almost 2 million.

The other branch of the Malabar Church which had broken communion with Rome retained the Assyrian Liturgical usage. The great majority, however, returned once again and today comprise over 92% of the overall Malabar Christian population of over 3 million. Liturgical reforms and restorations are presently taking place along with missionary activity in other parts of India.

History: Tradition attributes the evangelization of the Armenian area to the Apostles Jude and Bartholomew. Ancient Armenia lay outside the borders of the Roman Empire (in what is today Eastern Turkey) between the Black and Caspian Seas and the bordering areas of Iran. In the 10th century the area of Cilicia was also populated by Armenians. Armenia became the first State to adopt Christianity in 303 AD after King Tiridates III was converted to Christianity by St. Gregory the Illuminator (who came from Cappadocia). The Armenian Church was a daughter church of Antioch.

Liturgy & spirituality: The Armenian Liturgical Tradition is highly influenced by the Antiochean tradition. A curtain separates the inner sanctuary. It is opened during the celebration of the Eucharist. A high platform elevates the sanctuary from the main body of the church. The priest wears a crown to signify Christ the king. Unlike the Byzantine Liturgy, unleavened bread is used. Some of the Liturgy is said in Ancient Armenian.

For political, cultural and theological reasons the Church of Armenia rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and split from the rest of the Catholic Church. During the Crusades, the Armenian Orthodox (known as Armenian Apostolic) Church of Cilicia established communion with Rome, but when both the Crusader Kingdom and the Armenian Kingdom collapsed, communion was broken. At the Council of Florence in 1439 a decree of reunion was published but did not materialize. Catholic missionary work intensified and in 1740 an Armenian Catholic Patriarch was elected and later became established in Lebanon. The brutal massacres by the Turks during World War I killed millions and greatly reduced the number of Armenians. Since then they became scattered all over the world.

The Armenian Liturgy combines elements of the Byzantine and Syrian traditions. Of the approximately 3.7 million Armenian Christians, about 7% are Armenian Catholic who are spread throughout the world.

Antioch: The ancient metropolis in present-day Turkey where the name “Christian” was first used (Acts 11:26.)

Arian: A heresy named after its founder, Arius, a priest in Egypt. Arians maintained that the Son of God was created. The council of Nicea condemned this belief in 325 AD.

Byzantine: Having ties to the capital city of Constantinople, whose former name was Byzantium.

Canon: having official approval. e.g. the canon of scripture, the canon of the Mass.

Chalcedon, council of: In 451 AD the bishops of the world met in the city of Chalcedon to decide on the issue of the natures of Christ. They said that Christ is fully man and fully God. He is one person having two distinct but united natures, divine and human.

Constantinople: The metropolis founded as the New Rome and named after its founder, Emperor Constantine, the first pagan emperor to favor Christianity.

Gnosticism: A group of heresies in the first few hundred years of the church that are characterized by their lack of adherence to all the major tenets of Christianity. They made their own scriptures, rejected the Old Testament, denied the humanity of Christ, believed that matter was evil, rejected church authority, etc.

Ephesus, Council of: In 431 AD the bishops of the world proclaimed that Mary was the mother of God, thereby affirming the identity of Christ as one person. This council condemned the doctrine of Nestorius who said that Mary cannot be called “Theotokos,” the God-bearer.

Monophysite: “One nature.” A heresy condemned in 451 AD by the council of Chalcedon.

Nicea, council of: In 325 the bishops of the world proclaimed that Christ was “begotten not made, one in substance with the Father, God from God, light from light.” They condemned Arius who said there was a time when God was not a Father when the Son did not exist.

Patriarch: The bishop of a diocese that has great influence and authority over many other surrounding dioceses and whose authority is officially recognized by the whole church.

Theotokos: God-bearer. A title officially affirmed for continued use by the council of Ephesus in 431 AD.

Tradition: Venerable practice that has become part of the identity of a society or a family of societies. This term can also apply to the unchangeable apostolic teachings.

Faris, John D., Eastern Catholic Churches: Constitution and Governance, St. Maron Publications, NY, 1992.

Roberson, Ronald G., The Eastern Christian Churches: A Brief Survey, Edizioni: Orientalia Christiana, Rome, 1999.

Appleyard, George, Light of the East, Ukrainian Catholic Diocese of St. Josaphat in Parma, PA, and the National Conference of Catechetical Leadership, 2000.